Center of the Greek and Roman Society, the Byzantine...

The Byzantine Empire occurred for nearly 1,125 years, and it’s one of the ultimate empires of all time. Many people have heard of the Byzantine Empire, but know only a little about the history. The Byzantine Empire became the center of a very alive civilization that sealed Greek and Roman societies while Western Europe fell into the horrible times. Even though, it became one with Rome, it continued some of Rome’s patterns, they established its own form of civilization, but does not mean it was its own separate state. The Empire protected Western Europe’s belongings until barbarism declined. Many people and historians believe that without Byzantium to protect it, Europe would have faced Islamic invaders and would have lost. Though the†¦show more content†¦Little do people know that Byzantine got too rich for its own good that it topped Rome. Also, Byzantine had to come help the Romans or they would have been destroyed. The Roman Empire produced so great that they had two capitals, one in Rome, and one in Constantinople. Barbarians attacked Rome, causing the failure of the Western Roman Empire. Constantinople saw itself kind of helping the Roman development up in the middle of the barbarians. But needless to say, they never saw themselves as the Byzantine Empire. However it does not mean that The Byzantine Empire was not a continuation of the Roman Empire. No matter what, they are part of the Roman Empire. In my opinion they have both helped each other out in ways they cannot even imagine. Byzantine can be considered a separate state and a new one, but without the Roman Empire they would be nothing. Matter of fact, geographically, the Roman Empire was never a unit. So to the extent that Byzantine can be considered a separate, yes it can be. Byzantine has its own laws, culture, and region. Byzantine Empire had very different government structures. But at the end of the day, they still considered themselves Romans and practiced their laws. In my opinion, it’s better to be a part of the Roman Empire. Byzantium is the name given to both the state and the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle ages. To state, without Rome, technically Byzantine would have noShow MoreRelatedOrigins Of The Byzantine Empire2033 Words   |  9 Pagesof the Byzantine Empire (330-1453 CE) The Byzantine Empire is another word for the eastern half of the Roman Empire. It was born after a series of events that led to the fall of the western half of the Roman Empire. In 285 A.D., Diocletian decided to split the Roman Empire in half because the rapidly growing population was becoming too large to govern for a single person. This decision is considered to be one of the main acts that led to the downfall of the Western Roman world. The Byzantine EmpireRead MoreThe And Germanic Comitatus : Social Models Of The Early Middle Ages1275 Words   |  6 PagesThe monastery and Germanic comitatus were two social models of the Early Middle Ages. Monasticism is a religious way of life were one removes himself from society, giving up secular possessions and renouncing worldly ties so to fully devote himself to God and spiritual work. The comitatus is the Germanic war-band, a collection of men who give military service to a chieftain or warrior. While outwardly these two concepts appea r to be very different, the two social structures share many core ideologiesRead MoreA short term cause of World War I was Kosovo Day, which was a day for ethnic cleansing. This2800 Words   |  12 Pagesnation. This Tennis Court Oath created the Constitutional Monarchy. Although Byzantium was the Eastern Roman Empire, it was still fused between Rome and Greece. Byzantium got their literature from Greece. 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The three decans of Aries in the â€Å"Indian† system are selected from Abà » Ma`shar by way of example and a full explanation of their paranatellonta given (pp. 59-62). Ibn Wahshà ®ja follows the same method

Drug Cartel s Economic Dependency On U.s. - 1964 Words

Listen. The sound of the blood rusted chainsaw roars over the eerie silence that plagues the yard. Feel. Rough brick massaging the back of a bald middle-aged man. See. A crimson splatter-painted corpse on the fresh, sticky licorice colored pavement. Smell. The fresh blood oozing out of a rogue head that had been rolled across the alleyway. Taste. The irony tar like saliva laced with blood as you wait for the masked man to steal all sense from your body (Beith n. pag.). With the increasing influence of Mexican drug cartels, all impoverished citizens become subject to violent hate crimes against the government. The government s lack of control over their people, criminal justice system, and economics demonstrates the instability plaguing Mexican borders. The Mexican government must rise together to legalize marijuana in foreign countries, increase safety in underprivileged communities, and better organize the government in order to save thousands of innocent civilians from horrific cha insaw massacres. The extent of drug cartel’s economic dependency on U.S. and other foreign buyers shields individual empires from oppression and the threat of rival groups. As the percent of cocaine being transported into the US raises from 77 percent to more than 90 percent, drug cartels are becoming stronger and more widespread (Lee n. pag.). With the rapidly escalating number of U.S. cocaine sales, Mexican mafias profit immensely. These cash profits fund all cartel activities including theShow MoreRelatedKidnapping Of Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara Bonilla1839 Words   |  8 Pagespolitical message – violence would be employed against anyone who supported reforms against the illicit narcotics trade. Before his death, Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara Bonilla was one of the first politicians who voiced opposition to the exploding drug trade involving cocaine. The cycle of targeted violence returned only a couple of years later, on November 17, 1986, when a former chief of the anti-narco tics police force, Colonel Jaime Ramirez Gomez, was brutally murdered while traveling in a vehicleRead MoreThe War On Drugs And The United States Essay2046 Words   |  9 PagesFor many years, drugs have been the center of crime and the criminal justice system in the United States. Due to this widespread epidemic, President Richard Nixon declared the â€Å"War on Drugs† in 1971 with a campaign that promoted the prohibition of illicit substances and implemented policies to discourage the overall production, distribution, and consumption. The War on Drugs and the U.S. drug policy has experienced the most significant and complex challenges between criminal law and the values ofRead MoreTobacco And Its Impact On Tobacco1838 Words   |  8 Pagesexplorers from the fifteenth and sixteenth century discovered tobacco through the Native Americans who used the resource as medicine and as a hallucinogen. The plant was brought back to Europe where it instantly became a drug of choice. Rulers quickly banned tobacco, but its economic benefits and vast popularity compelled acceptance. It spread throughout the flourishing world and became the foundation for the growth of the American economy. Colonist started to grow and sell their own product; it becameRead MoreAnalysis Of The Best Consumer Digital Bank1692 Words   |  7 PagesBanamex along with many other private banks were very inexperienced in this area and they lacked regulation. This behavior over the next four years, combined with the devaluation of the Mexican peso, an increase in domestic rates, and a measurable economic recession caused Banamex to almost go into bankruptcy in late 1994. The Ernesto Zedillo administration stepped in with government funds that attracted shareholders to put new equity into Banamex This was achieved by the shareholders buying loansRead MoreChina s Economic And Technological Development4835 Words   |  20 Pages China and Drugs Geoffrey Tom, QiXia (Queenie) Yu, Vivian Seto SF State H-ED 315 July 6, 2015 â€Æ' Introduction China’s economic and technological development can be illustrated and presented exponentially. It is among the countries that has modern housing, cars, communication gadgets, fashion and medicine. However, this development also describes the progressive growth of hard drug usage and addiction. In a span of approximately 25 years, the presence of narcotics and illegal drugs was unheard ofRead MoreMarijuana Should Be Legal For Medical Benefits Essay1986 Words   |  8 Pagesfor safe or effective medicine for any condition.† It’s highly unlikely that anyone will be able to prove the substance is entirely safe, because (let’s be honest), it’s not. As with all drugs, there is an associated risk that comes along with any benefits the drug may have. It’s just like on those prescription drugs, when you hear how a medication may relieve pain or lower blood pressure, but the medication also comes along with a laundry list of side effects, warnings, and disclaimers. At the endRead MoreCVS STRUCTURE2170 Words   |  9 PagesEvery organizational domain consists of a specific and general environment. In CVS Pharmacy’s specific environment are its suppliers and customers. In CVS Pharmacy’s general environment are governmental regulations, advancements in technology, and economic forces. 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Although world sees United States as policeman and superpower country around the globe, U.S sometimes face critical oppositions, resistant and proxy wars around the world. This become a problem that prompted United States to introduce strategies of power projecting embedded in som e areas such as: military bases, economic control, soft power (political control), technology and waging wars on those nations that causes political turmoil internally or externallyRead MoreBrazil and Mexico Comparative Analysis Essay6071 Words   |  25 PagesTable of Contents INTRODUCTION 2 BRAZIL 2 Political Analysis 3 Cultural Analysis 4 Economic Analysis 7 MEXICO 9 Political Analysis 10 Cultural Analysis 11 Economic Analysis 14 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 17 Recommendation 18 BRAZILIAN STEEL INDUSTRY 18 IMPLEMENTATION 19 REFERENCES 21 APPENDIX 24 INTRODUCTION Brazil and Mexico are two emerging markets that are becoming increasingly prevalent and influential on the international stage. These nations share many similarities. Both are newly

Muhlenberg College Acceptance Rate, SAT/ACT Scores, GPA

Muhlenberg College is a private liberal arts college affiliated with the Lutheran Church with an acceptance rate of 62%. Founded in 1848 and located in Allentown, Pennsylvania, Muhlenberg offers 38 undergraduate majors and has an impressive 10-to-1  student / faculty ratio. While some of Muhlenbergs most popular programs are in pre-professional areas, the schools strengths in the liberal arts and sciences earned it a chapter of the prestigious  Phi Beta Kappa  Honor society. In athletics, the Muhlenberg Mules compete in the NCAA Division III  Centennial Conference. Considering applying to Muhlenberg College? Here are the admissions statistics you should know, including average SAT/ACT scores and GPAs of admitted students. Acceptance Rate During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, Muhlenberg College had an acceptance rate of 62%. This means that for every 100 students who applied, 62 students were admitted, making Muhlenbergs admissions process somewhat competitive. Admissions Statistics (2017-18) Number of Applicants 4,146 Percent Admitted 62% Percent Admitted Who Enrolled (Yield) 21% SAT Scores and Requirements Muhlenberg College has a test-optional standardized testing policy. Applicants to Muhlenberg may submit SAT or ACT scores to the school, but they are not required.  During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 60% of admitted students submitted SAT scores. SAT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile ERW 590 680 Math 580 680 ERW=Evidence-Based Reading and Writing This admissions data tells us that of those students who submitted scores during the 2017-18 admissions cycle, most of  Muhlenbergs admitted students fall within the  top 35% nationally  on the SAT. For the evidence-based reading and writing section, 50% of students admitted to Muhlenberg scored between 590 and 680, while 25% scored below 590 and 25% scored above 680. On the math section, 50% of admitted students scored between 580 and 680, while 25% scored below 580 and 25% scored above 680. While the SAT is not required, this data tells us that a composite SAT score of 1360 or higher is competitive for Muhlenberg. Requirements Muhlenberg College does not require SAT scores for admission. For students who choose to submit scores, note that Muhlenberg participates in the scorechoice program, meaning that the admissions office will consider your highest score from each individual section across all SAT test dates. Muhlenberg does not require the essay section of the SAT. ACT Scores and Requirements Muhlenberg has a test-optional standardized testing policy. Applicants may submit SAT or ACT scores to the school, but they are not required. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 29% of admitted students submitted ACT scores. ACT Scores and Requirements Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile English 26 32 Math 23 28 Composite 26 30 This admissions data tells us that of those who submitted scores during the 2017-18 admissions cycle, most of Muhlenbergs admitted students fall within the  top 18% nationally  on the ACT. The middle 50% of students admitted to Muhlenberg received a composite ACT score between 26 and 30, while 25% scored above 30 and 25% scored below 26. Requirements Note that Muhlenberg does not require ACT scores for admission. For students who choose to submit scores, Muhlenberg does not superscore ACT results; your highest composite ACT score will be considered. Muhlenberg does not require the ACT writing section. GPA In 2018, the average high school GPA of Muhlenberg Colleges incoming freshmen class was 3.34, and over 40% of admitted students had average high school GPAs of 3.5 and above. These results suggest that most successful applicants to Muhlenberg have primarily B grades. Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph Muhlenberg College GPA, SAT Scores and ACT Scores for Admission. Data courtesy of Cappex. The admissions data in the graph is self-reported by applicants to Muhlenberg College. GPAs are unweighted. Find out how you compare to accepted students, see the real-time graph, and calculate your chances of getting in  with a free Cappex account. Admissions Chances Muhlenberg College, which accepts fewer than two-thirds of applicants, has a somewhat competitive admissions pool. However, Muhlenberg also has a  holistic admissions  process and is test-optional, and admissions decisions are based on much more than numbers. A strong  application essay  and  glowing letters of recommendation  can strengthen your application, as can participation in meaningful  extracurricular activities  and a  rigorous course schedule. The college is looking for students who will contribute to the campus community in meaningful ways, not just students who show promise in the classroom. While not required, Muhlenberg strongly recommends  interviews  for interested applicants. Students with particularly compelling stories or achievements can still receive serious consideration even if their grades and scores are outside of Muhlenbergs average range. Note that while standardized test scores are optional for admission, applicants must submit either SAT or ACT scores to be considered for the Henry Melchior Muhlenberg Scholarships, Honors Programs, and Academic Partnerships. In the graph above, the blue and green dots represent accepted students. As you can see, the majority of admitted students had high school grades of B or better, combined SAT scores of 1200 or higher (ERWM), and ACT composite scores of 25 or better. Many admitted students had solid A averages. Note that grades are much more important than test scores due to Muhlenbergs test-optional admissions policy. If You Like Muhlenberg College, You May Also Like These Schools Lafayette CollegeVillanova UniversityVassar CollegeEmerson CollegeNew York UniversityFordham UniversityBoston UniversityBrandeis  UniversityAmerican UniversityConnecticut College All admissions data has been sourced from the National Center for Education Statistics and Muhlenberg College Undergraduate Admissions Office.

William Shakespeare s Much Ado About Nothing - 1608 Words

In Shakespeare s play, Much Ado about Nothing, many contrasting views on the subject of love are dramatised in the relationships presented, particularly those of Benedick and Beatrice, and Claudio and Hero. These views help to shape the play into a comedy, due to the severe differences. Benedick s slightly misogynistic views of love at the start of the play contrast heavily with his views by the end, as they change so drastically. He claims, in Act 1 Scene 1, that he is loved by all ladies, yet he loves none, suggesting that he is quite frivolous in terms of loving, further supported by his claims of being a professional tyrant to their sex. Women love him nevertheless, but he does not reciprocate the feelings, as he deems women†¦show more content†¦Benedick states that her love must be requited and he will be horribly in love with her. This sudden change contrasts in his earlier, relationship with Beatrice in Act 2 Scene 1, where he ridicules and mocks her harshly, showing no signs of affection. His speech also contrasts with his earlier views on marriage, as he states that he did not think I would live till I was married, hinting at the fact that his views are now swaying. In Act 5 Scene 4, Benedick asks the friar to aid in his marriage confession, only t o be met with mockery from Claudio, who states they will tip his horns with gold, further relating to the cuckold motif and mocking the fact that he has changed his ways considerably. Beatrice, however, occupies a similar view on love as Benedick, as she was previously a misandrist. In Act 2 Scene 1, she states that she will die a virgin, evading her fate of leading apes into hell when she dies, an expression describing the fate of unmarried women, and instead will sit where the bachelors sit up in heaven. This leads into why she does not take interest in men, as she thinks that they have no substance to them apart from earth, comparing them to dirt to heighten her bitterness towards the sex. She also compares men to a piece of valiant dust and a clod of wayward marl, feeding the fact that she compares men to dirt and other earthly, useless substances. Despite Beatrice s apparent bitterness towards males in general, it could be interpreted

A child called “it” Free Essays

I don’t believe that anyone could read this book and not be disturbed it. It is a poignant and heart wrenching book of one child’s great misery at the hands of his extremely â€Å"ill† mother. The types of abuse that were inflicted upon him were horrific and terrifying to read about, let alone to have suffered through. We will write a custom essay sample on A child called â€Å"it† or any similar topic only for you Order Now I had to pause several times in the reading just to take a breath and try to absorb that anyone could have endured such horrors and survived it. It often brought me to tears and shock from the sheer sadness of it. David Pelzer’s writings were clear, concise, and held back no punches. At times, I felt myself filled with rage at the injustice and cruelty this man bore as a helpless child and the incredulity that it was permitted to go unchecked for so long. It seemed so inconceivable that no one interfered or made any attempt to stop it from family to public officials. This did not happen in the Dark Ages but in the 1970’s in California and in a country which was and is supposed to be a nation of freedom and enlightenment. How could the system have so totally and miserably failed this child? The â€Å"why† of that was still a mystery to me when I had reached the conclusion of the book? The only answer I could come up with was that no one could be bothered until it just finally became so evident that it could no longer be ignored. That, in itself, is almost as dire a tragedy as the misery and pain this child had to feel and live through. First question: A discussion of how this book impacted you emotionally and cognitively. The first real reaction I had was to the way the boy felt so unworthy in the beginning chapter of the book. This is a classic sign of child abuse, where it becomes the purpose of the abuser to demean and belittle the abused until they have no self confidence left or any sense of personal dignity. A human being that believes in themselves will fight back and refuse to be submissive. The mother’s constant spew of criticism was intended for just that purpose so that David would not try to oppose her and would suffer through her abuse without fighting her. It gave her a sense of power over him, ill regardless of the fact that she was an adult and he was a child where the physical odds were against him. As each stage of the abuse became more violent and degrading as well as life threatening, my shock grew the further I read into the book. At points, it was hard to believe that a mother could be so uncaring of her child. Her coldness and lack of guilt amazed me but David’s mental and emotional fight to preserve his sanity and survival awed me more. When she broke his arm was horrible but to make him suffer through the night just so she pass it off as a fall off a top bunk and therefore, in her mind, take away any risk that she might be held accountable for it, impressed upon me just what a callous coward she was. Yet that incident seemed to pale in the mockery of the stabbing where she simply bound his wounds and let him heal at home without any medical help. She knew if she took him to the hospital that there would questions and reactions and she would come under suspicion but in truth, the saddest and most despicable action came from his father when David turned to him for help and the man simply told him to go back and finish the dishes before the mother noticed. He let his child stand there and bleed on the carpet and did nothing. Why? Because he was afraid of his wife and her mouth! He put his comfort over the safety of his child and that is unbelievable that any loving parent would do that! I could better understand David’s siblings’ withdrawal out of fear of the mother but the father and the grandmother, both adults, failing to act in David’s defense was almost beyond comprehension. The malicious way that the mother taught her youngest son to view his older brother was feasible because a child, especially a very young one, reacts to the way they are taught. He was blameless in a way and more so than David’s older brothers. It brought forth the question to my mind as to why â€Å"just David† and not the other boys? Why were they allowed to eat and have privileges and David wasn’t? What was it about David that made his mother single him out as the one to be despised and abused? These were questions that the book never quite answered in my opinion. Of course, the book was written from the first person point of view, which of David and in only being a child, how would he know what caused his mother to turn on him and treat him so abominably? Second question: A discussion of the instances of where people could have stopped the maltreatment but did not. This question goes back to the instance of the father in particular. He was the only other adult in the house and it should have fallen on him to stop the abuse when it first began. Despite the fact that his wife hid the abuse from him in the beginning and made David never reveal it to his father, how could he have not noticed? With the mother denying the child food, the boy would have grown thinner and wan with an unusual lack of energy or vibrancy normal to a child David’s age. The father would have also had to see how the child clung to him when he was home. Then as time progressed and the father did openly admit to what was happening, why did he not stop it? If he had been a truly loving and caring parent, he would have taken immediate action to stop it, no matter how much he cared about his wife. He simply did not want to â€Å"rock the boat†, to use an old adage. He chose to ignore the situation and pretend that it was not happening. David was alone in a world that he was too small to be able to defend himself in. How to cite A child called â€Å"it†, Papers

Nursing Placement for Ischemic Heart Disease- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theNursing Placement for Ischemic Heart Disease. Answer: Introduction The purpose of the paper is to gain a deep insight regarding the importance of pathophysiology, pharmacology, assessment of the diseases that are manifested by the patient in the given case study. In the given case study, the patient named Jackson Roland was admitted to Hampstead hospital as he fell in the aged care and got injured sustaining cervical spine. The actual patient name has been used in here. As he has no one to look after him, he has permanently stayed in aged care. Jack had a past medical history of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) type 1, hypertension, Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD), atonic bladder (SPC), Peripheral vascular disease(PVD). A catheter that is inserted surgically through the lower part of the abdomen directly into the bladder is known as suprapubic catheter or SPC. He also underwent bilateral transmetatarsal amputation, carpal tunnel surgery and CABG* 2 8 stunt 2008. As he is suffering from severe sensorimotor polyneuropathy due to diabetic neuropathy, there is risk for fall due to decreased sensation and lack of muscle coordination and control. Due to high blood sugar level, the nerves are damaged and can lead to neuropathy enhancing the risk for fall (Vinik et al. 2015). This condition is a diabetic complication and mostly occurs when diabetes remain undiagnosed or not well controlled. This could be the reason for Jacks fall and his need for admission at the hospital. For the access to Jacks information, informed consent is required from him or his caregiver at the aged care. The confidentiality is important while getting access to his personal information like past medical history, current medications, past surgeries and in getting previous medical records (Keast 2016, pp.20). Patient confidentiality has been maintained in here. The main risk for Jack after admission is the moderate or severe brain injury that could be associated with the sustained cervical spine injury (Theologis et al. 2014, pp.356-361). Therefore, there is a requirement of diagnosis and management of cervical spine trauma and assessment of diabetes and hypertension being the major concern and SPC supra pubic catheterisation due to atonic bladder. Pathophysiology As mentioned above, the medical history of Jack revealed that he is suffering from DM type 1, IHD, PVD, hypertension, atonic bladder (SPC) and severe sensorimotor polyneuropathy. Diabetes and hypertension are the major concern that could have manifested the signs and symptoms in Jack and made him prone to fall. Type 1 DM or juvenile diabetes is a condition when the body does not produce insulin that is important to break down the starches and sugars for energy generation (American Diabetes Association 2015). The pathophysiology of DM type 1 is the destruction of beta cells that secrete insulin from the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas (Jennings 2015). There is decline in beta cell mass that in turn decreases the insulin secretion until there is no adequate insulin to maintain the normal blood sugar levels where autoimmunity is the major DM type 1 pathophysiology (American Diabetes Association 2015). There is sensory neuropathy caused by segmental demyelination and axonal degeneration that is manifested in Jack making him prone to fall due to sustained hyperglycaemic condition. A patient having chronically elevated glucose level is exposed to damage to the longest nerves in their bodies that convey sensory information from the feet and toes to the spinal cord. The loss of muscle tone and sensation are worst felt at the ankles and feet. This makes it difficult for the patient to walk or stand up. This is more prominent at old age. The condition brought about by neuropathy is one of the major reasons that people with diabetes have such a high risk for falls (Atkinson, Eisenbarth and Michels 2014, pp.69-82). Pathophysiology of hypertension is multi-factorial and complex where kidney acts as the major target organ and contributing factor. Arterial hypertension is the persistent systemic blood elevation where the cardiac output is elevated or systemic vascular resistance increase. There is a strong link between hypertension and diabetic neuropathy where hypertension acts as the independent risk factor as RBCs and Na/K ATPase decrease. An alteration in the microcirculation plays an important role in this regard. Hypertension leads to up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression at the sites of myelin thinning at sensory nerve fibers. This potentially worsens comorbid diabetes (Visser et al. 2014). This could be the pathophysiology of hypertension in Jack with diabetes, both being intertwined conditions sharing significant overlap in the manifestation of the underlying risks (Burnier and Wuerzner 2015, pp.655-683). There are macrovascular complications associated with longstanding hypertension or diabetes which includes IHD (Ischemic Heart Disease) and PHD (American Diabetes Association 2015). Microvascular complications include sensorimotor polyneuropathy that is witnessed in Jack on admission. IHD is a condition in which there is narrowing or blockage of the blood vessels that affects the blood supply to the heart. This occurs due to cholesterol deposition on the walls of the vessels reducing the nutrient and oxygen supply to the heart muscles that is essential for the proper functioning of the heart. Therefore, this condition occurs when some part of the heart is deprived of the oxygen and blood supply that can lead to heart attack (Shepard et al. 2015, pp.455-456). In the given case study, Jack is suffering from DM type 1 that is the major risk factor for the disease. Hypertension also acts as a risk factor for the development of IHD and with time, the disease progresses. The longstanding high glucose levels damages arteries that make them hard and stiff. There is building up of fatty materials on the walls of these vessels blocking the blood flow to brain and heart that can lead to stroke (Shepard et al. 2015, pp.455-456). PVD is also caused due to diabetes and hypertension, being the primary factor for the development of the disease. There is slow narrowing or blocking of the blood vessels that can also cause spasms. PHD is a progressive circulation disorder that also involves blood vessels outside heart like arteries, lymphatic vessels or veins. These vessels supplying blood to brain, legs are also constricted and results in improper functioning. PHD most commonly affects feet and legs where there is decrease in the inner size of vessels and eventually blocks the major arteries (Mascarenhas et al. 2014, pp.149-166). Postural hypotension (PH) is the one of the signs associated with Jacks fall, which he sustained at home and it could be a risk for him as he suffers from type I Diabetes Mellitus. PH is defined as fall in the systolic blood pressure 20mm Hg or a fall in the diastolic blood pressure 10mm Hg, following 3 minutes of continuous standing. It is associated with sympathetic autonomic dysfunction in patients suffering from diabetes mellitus (Bharucha et al. 2013, pp.330-339). It can cause renal failure and even sudden death. It is caused as a result of poor diabetic control and ageing. Diabetes is linked to PH as autonomic neuropathy and inappropriate usage of antihypertensive medications can give rise to sudden drops in the blood pressure, thereby resulting in falls as a result of syncope or fainting (Hjortkjr et al. 2016, p.e012307). Under normal conditions, when an individual changes to a standing position from a sitting position, the brain sends signals to the blood vessels of the leg s to undergo constriction reflexively and in an instant manner. This prevents blood to accumulate in the leg, preventing blood and oxygen deprivation to the brain. However, in patients with diabetes mellitus, the nerves involved in signalling send poor signals to the leg blood vessels and thereby results in fall in blood pressure. This is a sign of sympathetic neuropathy and results in PH. However, anti-hypertensives like diuretics and alpha-1-antagonists like terazosin and prazosin can also cause postural hypotension. Individuals with diabetes are also at an increased risk of sustaining dehydration. High blood glucose levels in can lead to decrease in water content of the body resulting in dehydration. One of the symptoms of severe dehydration is fall in blood pressure, which can cause fainting in individuals. The patient was suffering from diabetes mellitus, so one of the reasons for his fall could be dehydration. Apart from diabetes, peripheral neuropathy can also cause postural hypotension (Canal et al. 2013). The peripheral nervous system helps to connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body like arms, legs, internal organs, mouth, among others. In peripheral neuropathy the nerves associated with the connections and the necessary signalling undergoes malfunction. These malfunctions are caused as a result of damage to these nerves. One of the symptoms associated with peripheral neuropathy is a drop in blood pressure, which can result in fainting. Nerve damage in peripheral neuropathy is mainly caused by diabetes (Metzler et al. 2013, pp.2212-2219; Tsantoulas et al. 2017, p. eaam6072). The condition of atonic bladder is also linked with poorly controlled or long-standing diabetic condition. This condition is a urologic complication of diabetes referred as bladder dysfunction. There are complaints of urge incontinence to decreased bladder or overactive bladder and overflow incontinence. This is a condition faced by the patient as he had undergone supra pubic catheterisation. Neurological destruction is linked to the development of atonic bladder. Destruction of damaging of the nerves that are responsible for bladder control are associated with atonic bladder condition. This may result in obstructive urinary bladder, underactive or overactive urinary bladder. This is caused as a result of the alterations in the physiology of the detrusor muscles, neuronal impairment and urothelial dysfunction. This is the reason SPC supra pubic catheterisation was being administered in Jack. This could be a reason for dehydration in Jack leading to postural hypotension and risk for f alls. An overactive bladder can cause the frequent release of urine from the body and if this fluid is not replaced, it results in dehydration (Chu, Tsai and Hwang 2016, p.S66; Ay et al. 2013, p. E135 ). The resulting neuropathic condition that is witnessed in Jack in sensorimotor polyneuropathy, where he has lost the ability to feel or move due to nerve damage. Polyneuropathy is defined as the systemic or body wide condition where the nerves are damaged in different parts of body like nerve fibres, nerve cells and nerve coverings (Taveggia et al. 2014, pp.242-252). Sensorimotor polyneuropathy can cause damage in nerve cells, axons and the myelin sheaths. This damage takes place in the covering of the nerve cells that makes nerve signals to become slow or stop working. One of the causes of sensorimotor polyneuropathy is diabetes. Transmetatarsal amputation (TMA) is performed to preserve limb viability and is used to treat patients with diabetic neuropathy among other medical conditions. TMA is done in cases of forefoot ulcerations and gangrene complicated due to the presence of diabetes mellitus. The patient had also undergone carpal tunnel surgery. This surgery relieves pressure fro m the median nerve, thereby preventing carpal tunnel syndromes. Carpal tunnel syndrome causes numbness, weakness and tingling sensations in the hand because of pressure building in the median nerve of the wrist. Diabetes is one of the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome. Reduction in heart rate variability (HRV) is generally associated with diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy. The patient had also undergone coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) to improve his blood flow to the heart. Thus, the patient suffers from severe sensorimotor polyneuropathy, which has affected his limbs like forefoot and wrists. Moreover, his heart is also affected. From the above discussions regarding the pathophysiology of the conditions that are manifested in Jack, it is evident that diabetes and hypertension are the main reasons for the development and progression of these diseases. He developed postural hypotension as a result of his diabetes. He also suffered from sensorimotor polyneuropathy, which is associated with diabetes. For this reason, he had to undergo TMA to maintain his limb viability and also had to undergo carpal tunnel surgery to relieve pressure from the median nerves in his wrist. Another symptom of sensorimotor polyneuropathy is heart rate variability and as a result he had to undergo CBG. The cervical spine injury also exhibit complications like bladder dysfunction that leaves the detrusor muscles incapable of contraction and causes urine to flow back to the kidneys and so, SPC is being used that permit passive urine drainage at regular intervals for the prevention of bladder overfilling. The conditions are due to the com plications of long-standing diabetes or hypertension in Jack that was either undiagnosed or poorly managed. Therefore, the main concern for his care are the diabetes and hypertension conditions and the SPC supra pubic catheterisation due to atonic bladder. Pharmacology Jacks current medications include Navorapid, Lantus solo star pen, Amlodipine. The immediate concern is to manage his diabetes and blood pressure levels. He suffered a sustained cervical spine injury, but it is not possible to reverse the spinal cord damage. However, pharmacological medications could promote regeneration of nerve cell and improve the nerve functioning. Therefore, the pharmacological interventions in spinal cord injury treatment is focused on the prevention of further injury and empowering Jack to lead a productive and active life. The medication NovoRapid is used for the lowering of the blood sugar levels, as the pancreas cannot produce insulin to meet the requirements of the body (Wendt et al. 2017, p. 1932296817693254). The expected outcome of this medication is to lower the blood glucose levels as glucose cannot store or accumulated by the body for use. Novorapid stimulates the glucose uptake in fat and skeletal muscle, inhibits the production of hepatic glucose. This medication also inhibits proteolysis or lipolysis and enhances protein synthesis (Davisplus.fadavis.com, 2017). It has a rapid action and onset with shorter duration as compared to human insulin. It has a therapeutic effect of controlling hyperglycemia and so it can control the blood glucose levels of Jack, which were found to be high as he was suffering from type I diabetes mellitus, which results in inability of the body to produce insulin. The side effects of this drug include hypoglycemia in the endothelial cells and have local effects lik e swelling, erythema, pruritis and liposystrophy. It also has miscellaneous side effects include allergic reactions like anaphylaxis. The contraindications of this drug are in hypoglycemia, hypersensitivity or allergy and should be cautiously used in infection and stress. As Jack is suffering from type 1 diabetes, this drug must be used with longer-acting insulin that includes the precautions before using this drug for lowering the blood glucose levels. These precautions include inadequate dosing or treatment discontinuation. Inadequate or discontinuation of treatment can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycaemia. NovoRapid must not be injected if symptoms of hypoglycaemia develop. Dose adjustment is considered following blood glucose adjustment. Rapid onset of action of NovoRapid can be expected in the case of patients with concomitant diseases. Concomitant diseases increases patients requirements for insulin and as a result, the doses need to be changed. Insulin antibodies can form and insulin administration needs to be regulated in order to prevent hyper or hypoglycaemia. The nursing considerations include the proper administration of the drug and check for dose, type and expiration date. This drug should be administered by disposable external insulin pump and discarding of cartridges after 7 days. The infusion site should be changed every 48 hours and most importantly, insulin aspart should be administered along with a long-duration acting insulin due to Novorapids short duration of action (Jennings 2016, pp.132-23; Bowering et al. 2017, pp. 161770). The patient used a Lantus Solostar pen for insulin injection. Amlodipine is used to lower blood pressure and also helps to improve blood flow to the heart, in case of blocked arteries. Amlodipine is an antihypertensive and calcium channel blocker that inhibit the transportation of calcium into vascular and myocardial smooth muscle cells that result in inhibition of excitation-contraction coupling and contraction. It has a therapeutic effect of vasodilation that results in decreased blood pressure. This coronary vasodilatation result in decreased severity and frequency of angina attacks and also helps in the treatment of high blood pressure or hypertension. The patient in the case study is treated with Amlodipine for the treatment of hypertension. However, the side effects of this drug include fatigue, dizziness, angina, peripheral edema, hypotension, bradycardia, angina, palpitations and may cause flushing, nausea and gingival hyperplasia. This drug is contraindicated in low systolic BP below 90 mm Hg and hypersensitivity. This drug should be c autiously used in aortic stenosis, severe hepatic impairment and should be used with utmost precaution. Before administration, nurse should consider the dose, route of administration and expiry date and may be administered without regard to the meals (Higaki et al. 2017, p.251). Amlodipine can cause low blood pressure, which can result in dizziness and fainting. Thus, it is necessary to monitor the blood pressure before its administration. Lantus solostar pen or insulin glargine has therapeutic effect by lowering of the blood glucose levels through stimulation of glucose uptake in the fat and skeletal muscles. It inhibits the production of hepatic glucose and inhibition of lipolysis, proteolysis. It also enhances protein synthesis and control hyperglycemia. The adverse reactions of this drug are hypoglycemia, swelling, erythema, lipodystrophy and pruritis and can cause hypersensitivity including anaphylaxis. Before administration, the nurse should consider the dosage and administration of this drug as medication errors are common in insulin. Insulin syringes should be properly used and there should be no mixing of the drug with other insulin solutions. The drug should be administered subcutaneously once daily at the same time each day and should not be administered with insulin pumps or IV (Rosselli et al. 2015, p.251; Ranjan et al. 2016, p.410-418). Investigations The assessment of the vital signs and diagnostic tests or activities is important for the patient-center care and planning. The patient history, vital signs, laboratory tests and physical examination is important for the proper planning of care and disease management. Vital signs of a patient are important for the healthcare professionals to determine the treatment options and provide critical information to make the decisions for treatment and management. In the given case study, after admission to the hospital, Jack was diagnosed with type 1 DM, hypertension through the diagnostic testing of blood. He suffered a serious fall at his home as a result of postural hypotension, which indicates that he had these medical conditions prior to hospital admission but was diagnosed after admission. Everyday Jacjkson was monitored thrice daily to check his blood sugar level before administration of insulin. It is necessary to check blood glucose levels before insulin administration, since, insu lin administration following low blood glucose levels can give rise to serious health concerns and can also give rise to hypoglycaemia. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is essential to guide the therapy for diabetic patients. Patients with Type 1 diabetes are usually given 2 injections of two types of insulin per day. This generally progresses to 3-4 injections of different types of insulin. Types of insulin depends on blood glucose levels. Monitoring of blood glucose levels is essential in order to modulate the insulin dosage, activity and food consumption. The main reason for admission was fall, so X ray was done to look for any kind of injury that he has sustained after cervical spine injury. The patients past medical history revealed that he suffers from hypertension and diabetes. His blood pressure and blood glucose levels had to be monitored in the aged care, so that proper medications and nursing implementations were carried out to provide sufficient care to the patient. In the aged care, the patients blood pressure was checked regularly. This was because, he was suffering from hypertension, moreover, high blood glucose levels can also result in high blood pressure. Jack also suffered from heart problems and hypertension is a major risk factor for the development of ischemic heart disease. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor blood pressure, in order to prevent ischemic heart disease. Measurement of blood pressure is also needed in patients suffering from postural hypotension, which can increase the risk of falls. High blood pressure can also intensify the symptoms in patients suffering from angina, which in turn can increase the risk of heart attack. As Jack is hypertensive and sustained cervical spine injury, x-ray and ECG are important to assess his heart condition and any kind of internal injury after falling (Forbes and Watt 2015, pp.60). ECG can detect patterns in heart beats to monitor proper blood flow to the heart and necessary nursing care plan can be designed to prevent heart attack. Necessary care and monitoring is needed for patients with supra pubic catheterization. The bag should be present below the waist to prevent urine flow back to the bladder. It is also necessary to monitor whether the catheter is connected and to identify presence of kinks. It is also necessary to move the tubing in the absence of proper draining. In the nursing process, the physical assessment and medical history are important part of data collection for the individualized, patient-centered and holistic care. The medical history is the foundation of diagnosis and treatment as it helps in the identification of patient care needs. The investigations are the key component in the patient assessment that enables healthcare professionals to enable high quality of patient care by giving them a better understanding of the patients complexities, conditions and processes that are involved in the planning care and treatment (LeMone et al. 2015, pp.7-9). Immediate most urgent discharge issue After Jacks discharge from the hospital, it is necessary to hand over his necessary diet plan, nursing care and medications to the staff members in the aged care. It is necessary to monitor his blood pressure and blood glucose levels regularly to provide necessary care with respect to his medical condition. The rationale for choosing this issue is that as he is suffering from diabetic complications and sustained cervical injury, it is important to manage his diabetic or hypertensive condition and his compliance with medications. However, falls may not be an urgent issue but high blood pressure can affect his already deteriorating heart condition. For this, there is need for inclusion of other healthcare professionals who can promote his proper health and improve quality of life. Registered dietician, nurse educator, exercise physiologist and physiotherapists are required for Jack in keeping his diabetes and hypertension under control and compliance to medications. An exercise physiol ogist can inform patients about blood glucose and how to monitor it, so that proper medications can be taken. Moreover, they also provide information about eating strategies and exercises that would help to reduce body fat and high blood glucose levels. Nurse educator would help to educate Jack so that he can take control of his condition and coordinates treatment (American Diabetes Association 2015, pp.S4-S10). Registered dietician can educate and encourage him to follow his daily meal plan as a part of self-management at home and exercise physiologist would help him to develop appropriate exercise for maintaining his fitness level (American Diabetes Association, 2013, pp.S80-S85). Thus, a patient can carry out self -management at home, in the absence of others to take care of him. Reflection According to the Nursing and Midwifery Board in Australia (NMBA) under National Competency standards for the registered nurses, feedback is important as it provides support and reassurance (Birks et al. 2016, pp.522-543). It helps the nurses to become motivated and by taking an active participation in the feedback progress, they can better understand their nursing practice and work towards their professional development. Seeking feedback in nursing practice helps to improve the nursing care and participate in the quality improvement processes. Self-appraisal and constructive feedback enhance critical thinking while reflecting on their nursing practice and in achieving a benchmark in the professional nursing development. Feedback from colleagues helps nurses to critically reflect on their nursing practice and undertake self-regulation on a daily basis for the enhancement of professional development and in identifying the professional needs (Fisher, 2017, p.4). Feedback aids in contrib uting to the professional development as they actively take part in the professional nursing practice as it provides additional knowledge to the existing nursing practice for its enhancement. Feedback can be gained from patients, carers, doctors, colleagues, among others. It helps in communicating with the patients, care givers and relatives to provide highly enhanced care for the patients. It also helps to carry out self-assessment, which can essentially help in improving the nursing practices. These in turn helps in the continuation of the nurses professional development. The NMBA standards for nurses stresses on a variety of domains. These include collaborative and professional practice, provisions for care and reflective or analytical practice. Collaborations in professional practice is necessary to make improvements in the existing nursing practices. Moreover, reflection of ones practices are essential in order to analyse and self deduce the pros and cons associated with the pr actice to make improvements in the future in order to provide enhanced care to patients. Concisely, NMBA standards states that seeking feedback and using information from others by nurses helps in professional development and understanding on how to assess their nursing practice in variety of clinical settings. References American Diabetes Association, 2013. Executive summary: Standards of medical care in diabetes2013.Diabetes care,36(Supplement 1), pp.S4-S10. American Diabetes Association, 2015. 13. Diabetes Care in the Hospital, Nursing Home, and Skilled Nursing Facility.Diabetes Care,38(Supplement 1), pp.S80-S85. Atkinson, M.A., Eisenbarth, G.S. and Michels, A.W., 2014. Type 1 diabetes.The Lancet,383(9911), pp.69-82. Ay, A., Demir, A., Kismet, K., Emir, L. and Ertas, E., 2013. Idiopathic giant atonic bladder (6000 mL in volume) present for 15 years with no urinary symptoms.Canadian Urological Association Journal,7(1-2), p.E135. Bharucha, A.E., Batey-Schaefer, B., Cleary, P.A., Murray, J.A., Cowie, C., Lorenzi, G., Driscoll, M., Harth, J., Larkin, M., Christofi, M. and Bayless, M., 2015. Delayed gastric emptying is associated with early and long-term hyperglycemia in type 1 diabetes mellitus.Gastroenterology,149(2), pp.330-339. Birks, M., Davis, J., Smithson, J. and Cant, R., 2016. Registered nurse scope of practice in Australia: an integrative review of the literature.Contemporary nurse,52(5), pp.522-543. Bowering, K., Case, C., Harvey, J., Reeves, M., Sampson, M., Strzinek, R., Bretler, D.M., Bang, R.B. and Bode, B.W., 2017. Faster Aspart Versus Insulin Aspart As Part of a Basal-Bolus Regimen in Inadequately Controlled Type 2 Diabetes: The onset 2 Trial.Diabetes Care, p.dc161770. Burnier, M. and Wuerzner, G., 2015. Pathophysiology of Hypertension. InPathophysiology and Pharmacotherapy of Cardiovascular Disease(pp. 655-683). Springer International Publishing. Canal, N., Comi, G., Saibene, V., Musch, B. and Pozza, G., 2013, October. The relationship between peripheral and autonomic neuropathy in insulin dependent diabetes: a clinical and instrumental evaluation. InPeripheral Neuropathies: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Peripheral Neuropathies Held in Milan, Italy, on June 2628, 1978(Vol. 1, p. 247). Elsevier. Chu, Y.B., Tsai, T.F. and Hwang, T.I., 2016. Case report: A giant atonic bladder with more than 5000ml in volume.Urological Science,27(2), p.S66. Davisplus.fadavis.com (2017).Cite a Website - Cite This For Me. [online] Davisplus.fadavis.com. Available at: https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/insulinaspart.pdf [Accessed 6 Nov. 2017]. De Visser, A., Hemming, A., Yang, C., Zaver, S., Dhaliwal, R., Jawed, Z. and Toth, C., 2014. The adjuvant effect of hypertension upon diabetic peripheral neuropathy in experimental type 2 diabetes.Neurobiology of disease,62, pp.18-30. Fisher, M., 2017. Professional standards for nursing practice: How do they shape contemporary rehabilitation nursing practice?.Journal of the Australasian Rehabilitation Nurses Association,20(1), p.4. Forbes, H. and Watt, E., 2015.Jarvis's Physical Examination and Health Assessment. Elsevier Health Sciences. Higaki, J., Komuro, I., Shiki, K., Lee, G., Taniguchi, A., Ikeda, H., Kuroki, D., Nishimura, S. and Ogihara, T., 2017. Effect of hydrochlorothiazide in addition to telmisartan/amlodipine combination for treating hypertensive patients uncontrolled with telmisartan/amlodipine: a randomized, double-blind study.Hypertension Research,40(3), p.251. Hjortkjr, H.., Jensen, T., Kofoed, K.F., Mogensen, U.M., Sigvardsen, P.E., Kber, L., Hilsted, K.L., Corinth, H., Theilade, S. and Hilsted, J., 2016. Nocturnal antihypertensive treatment in patients with type 1 diabetes with autonomic neuropathy and non-dipping: a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind cross-over trial.BMJ open,6(12), p.e012307. Jennings, P., 2016. Insulin aspart.Reactions,1598, pp.132-23. Keast, K. (2016). Taking enrolled nursing into a new era.Australian Nursing and Midwifery Journal,23(8), 20. LeMone, P., Burke, K., Dwyer, T., Levett-Jones, T., Moxham, L. and Reid-Searl, K., 2015.Medical-surgical nursing. Pearson Higher Education AU. Mascarenhas, J.V., Albayati, M.A., Shearman, C.P. and Jude, E.B., 2014. Peripheral arterial disease.Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America,43(1), pp.149-166. Metzler, M., Duerr, S., Granata, R., Krismer, F., Robertson, D. and Wenning, G.K., 2013. Neurogenic orthostatic hypotension: pathophysiology, evaluation, and management.Journal of neurology,260(9), pp.2212-2219. Ranjan, A., Schmidt, S., Madsbad, S., Holst, J.J. and Nrgaard, K., 2016. Effects of subcutaneous, low?dose glucagon on insulin?induced mild hypoglycaemia in patients with insulin pump treated type 1 diabetes.Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism,18(4), pp.410-418. Rosselli, J.L., Archer, S.N., Lindley, N.K. and Butler, L.M., 2015. U300 Insulin Glargine: A Novel Basal Insulin for Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes.Journal of Pharmacy Technology,31(5), pp.234-242. Shepard, D., VanderZanden, A., Moran, A., Naghavi, M., Murray, C. and Roth, G., 2015. Ischemic heart disease worldwide, 1990 to 2013.Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes,8(4), pp.455-456. Taveggia, G., Villafae, J.H., Vavassori, F., Lecchi, C., Borboni, A. and Negrini, S., 2014. Multimodal treatment of distal sensorimotor polyneuropathy in diabetic patients: a randomized clinical trial.Journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics,37(4), pp.242-252. Theologis, A.A., Dionisio, R., Mackersie, R., McClellan, R.T. and Pekmezci, M., 2014. Cervical spine clearance protocols in level 1 trauma centers in the United States.Spine,39(5), pp.356-361. Tsantoulas, C., Lanez, S., Wong, S., Mehta, I., Vilar, B. and McNaughton, P.A., 2017. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotidegated 2 (HCN2) ion channels drive pain in mouse models of diabetic neuropathy.Science Translational Medicine,9(409), p.eaam6072. Vinik, A.I., Vinik, E.J., Colberg, S.R. and Morrison, S., 2015. Falls risk in older adults with type 2 diabetes.Clinics in geriatric medicine,31(1), pp.89-99. Wendt, S.L., Ranjan, A., Mller, J.K., Schmidt, S., Knudsen, C.B., Holst, J.J., Madsbad, S., Madsen, H., Nrgaard, K. and Jrgensen, J.B., 2017. Cross-validation of a glucose-insulin-glucagon pharmacodynamics model for simulation using data from patients with type 1 diabetes.Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, p.1932296817693254.

Economics of Contract Law

Question 1: If a contract is silent as to the sum to be paid by the employer to the contractor for the works, the law implies into the contract an obligation on the employer to pay a reasonable price for the works carried out. Drawing on examples from standard form contracts, highlight how express terms have been used to give effect to and/or modify the assessment of the reasonable price the law would, in the absence of express terms as to the sum payable, require the employer to pay. Question 2: It was in the nineteenth century first and foremost that a philosophy of freedom of contract was established. Embedded in this philosophy was not only the freedom to enter into and negotiate the terms of contract, but also the right of the parties to determine the levels of compensation payable in the event of a breach'. Evaluate the extent to which this approach is, today, reflected in the ability of a party to impose penalties on the other party in the event of a breach of contract. Question 3: Ethel, a property developer, decided to build a house (the house) for herself and her family. She wanted the house to be modern in design and built largely of reinforced concrete and glass. She also wanted the house to provide a place in which she could display her valuable collection of paintings throughout. The Dominant Cause Partnership (DCP) is a leading firm of architects that specialise in the construction of such dwellings. At a meeting with Ahmed, a senior partner in DCP, Ethel described the nature of her painting collection. She explained that her paintings would be damaged by sunlight and that, if she were to go ahead with the project, it was vitally important to her that the glass walls of the house should protect the paintings from sunlight. Ahmed assured her that modern glass-making technology would offer her paintings the protection needed. Ethel then entered into a contract with DCP for the design of the house. DCP produced a design, detailed drawings and technical specifications for the house. DCPs involvement in the project ended at that point and Ethel paid DCPs bill. She then took over the management of the construction of the house herself. Ethel ordered materials and engaged a building company, which constructed the house. Both the construction of the house and the materials ordered were in strict compliance with DCPs drawings and specifications. Once the glass had been fitted Ethel soon discovered that it possessed none of the light-protecting qualities required. Upon investigation, it was discovered that whilst the glass conformed to the specification ordered by Ethel and specified by DCP, DCPs specification for the glass was incorrect. It is estimated that the cost of replacing the glass will increase the building cost of the house from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. The value of Ethels paintings is estimated at 750,000. 1.Advise Ethel on any claims that she may have against DCP in breach of contract. 2. Advise Ethel on the damages she may recover if she is successful; include in your advice the principles the court will use when deciding whether to award substantial damages in respect of breach of contract. Answers: 1: Contract means a lawfully enforceable agreement between at least two parties based upon some terms and conditions depending upon which the parties to the contract performs their obligation as to each other in relation to the terms of the contract (Meyer, 2010). The validity of a contract depends upon its essentials, these are mandatory for the purpose of constructing a valid legal contract. The essentials of a contract are as follows: 1. The parties to the contract must have attained the age of maturity at the time of entering into the contract.2. The free consent of the parties to the contract is mandatory for the purpose of forming a valid contract.3. The parties to the contract must be of sound mind and they are enough capable for understanding the terms and conditions as well as the consequences of the contract.4. The subject matter of the contract must not be illegal in nature and any terms or conditions of the contract must not contravene any provision of any law in force (Suez environment awarded contract in UAE, 2008).5. Another most important essential factor of a valid contract is consideration, without consideration no valid contract can be formed (Frey and Frey, 2001).Here, in the mentioned circumstances the sum which is to be paid by the employer to the contractor is not given but the obligation from the part of the contractor is implicated in an implied manner. But according to the provisions of the law of contracts in United Arab Emirates, any contract without consideration of either party is void and shall not have any legal enforceability as well as the binding force of law (Fattal and Schutz, 2008). Consideration is what a party to the contract receives in against of performing his part of obligation in the course of the contract. The consideration of a contract may be or may not be calculated in the economic form or any other kind. Consideration is a promise to do anything or to abstain from doing anything, which may or may not have any financial relation (Elliott and Quinn, 2007). For example if A and B enters into a contract and A says to be if B gives his pen to A, he will never talk to Bs wife C anymore. Here, As consideration is the pencil and Bs consideration is the promise made by A that he will never talk to Bs wife C. So it is not necessary that the consideration of a contract must be financial in nature, rather it is a promise to perform any particular act which may be in relation to the economic factor or may not. Without consideration if any contract is formed then that will be a void contract and if the consideration from either party is not mentioned properly then it would be difficult to determine the part of consideration in enforceability of the contract (Richards, 2006). In the famous case of Browning Vs Johnson, the Ld Court has observed that the forbearance of a lawful right of either party to the contract is a valid consideration for the other party of the contract subject to the consent of the parties. The court also held that a promise to surrender a lawful right from the part of either of the parties to the contract is a valid consideration for the other party to the contract. Subsequently, consideration need not to be adequate or parallel to the comparative value, but it is sufficient that either of the party to the contract made promise to do anything or abstain from doing anything against the performance of the other party in the course of the contract (Hillman, 1997).According to the Article 267 of the United Arab Emirates Civil Code independent annihilation of a contract cannot have any legal effect in the United Arab Emirates, however the observation of the Courts in United Arab Emirates demonstrate that the employer in construction cases be able to be permitted to unilaterally conclude a contract, subject to some exceptions. In a current Appeal judgment in a court with competent jurisdiction, it was observed that the grounds behind this exemption are that muqawala type of contracts often takes an extended period of time to conclude and situation may transform in the period connecting formation of contract and completion of the work of the contract. This exemption has its pedigree in Egyptian law (Bechor, 2007). In this case, the court observed that when a chief contractor provides notice of annihilation to the subcontractor, the contract of muqawala terminates and the chief contractor have to pay compensation the subcontractor for the expenditures incurred, any work previously performed and defeat of profit which is expected by the subcontractor to earn by taking responsibilities of the work (Company, 2015). The main reason behind the concept of reasonable price is that no one should be deprived of what he is entitled. If any party to the contract performs his part of obligation then he is entitled to get his consideration, in the mentioned circumstances in the question, the actual amount of consideration was not mentioned but there was something which could have been taken in account as consideration though it was not specific for that purpose the principal of reasonable price applies. In the case of Baird Textile Holdings Ltd v MS plc, it was observed by the Ld. Court that if the price is uncertain the terms of the contract then the either of the party give terminate the contract by serving a notice of termination but if either of the party has already performed his obligation then the other party have to perform his part of duty in the course of the contract, if it is uncertain then the principal of reasonable price may be applied (McKendrick, 2007). In the case of Scammell and Nephew Ltd v Ouston, it was held by the Ld. Court that if the actual quantity of consideration is not mentioned in the terms of the contract then it is not possible for the courts to determine the actual reasonable price in relation to the consideration as it depends upon various factors like market, conditions, quality of work and most importantly the kind of performance, whether it is performed in accordance with the terms of the contract or not (Christ water technology subsidiary awarded UAE contract, 2007). 2: In this regard it should be mentioned that in case of a breach of contract penalty was the only remedy in the nineteenth century, but in present scenario this concept has changed a lot. Nowadays, in case of a breach of contract by either party to the contract there are three possible way in relation to the remedy. These are, (i) Compensation or damages, (ii) Specific performance, and (iii) Injunction. As per the information provided in the context of the question a party to the contract was not only empowered to negotiate the terms of the contract but also impose penalties upon the other party in case of a breach of contract (Knight and Satchell, 2007). The level of penalty was also determined by the aggrieved party of the contract. But in present legal scenario things changed to a very far extend, now any person may enter into a valid contract subject to the competency of the person, may also negotiate the terms and conditions of the contract but if there is any breach of contract t hen the for the purpose of complying appropriate remedy the aggrieved party have to approach to the court of law with competent jurisdiction (Carter, 2012). Only the court of law has the power to impose penalty upon the other party to the contract or to give decree in favor of any other form of remedy which is available in the course of such breach of contract. Whether there is any scope for imposing penalty or not that also is determined by the concern court with competent jurisdiction. These issues are generally decided by the court depending upon various factors in accordance with the terms of the contract as well as the law of contract of the country. For example, if in case of breach of contract, where chances of specific performance is more possible than imposing penalty, then the court of law with competent jurisdiction may give a decree in favor of specific performance of the contract but if there is no scope for specific performance or if it is done it would not serve the l oss of the aggrieved party then the court may impose penalty upon the defendant. Here the aggrieved party is not authorized to take any action in relation to imposing penalty by himself; the court of law will award it, if the court thinks fit and proper. For illustration, A and B entered into a contract, where A has paid a sum of money to B and B was obliged to construct a building in the adjacent land of the house of A but B has not constructed the building, here the scope of specific performance is very much available, so B may be compelled to perform his duty unless he have to pay compensation along with the sum of money received in this regard, to A. From the nineteenth century till today, the concept of penalties in case of breach of contract has changed a lot. Now the term penalty has became more adequate in the legal field in the name of damages. The process of determining the penalty is also changed as per the development of the legal surroundings. Damages are determined by two forms which are; liquidated damages and un-liquidated damages. Liquidated damages is a form of damages where the actual loss suffered by the aggrieved party because of the breach of contract can be calculated and depending upon which penalty can be imposed, for example A and B entered into a contract, where A gave a sum of 1000 $ to B and asked to construct a building adjacent to the house of A, and also promised to pay the balance amount of money which is 1500$ after completing the construction, but after the construction has been complete, A refuses to pay the balance amount of money to B, here the loss suffered by B is specific and can be easily cal culated, so it falls within the within the purview of the concept of liquidated damages. But if in the same case the amount of money was not specified and the cost of construction made by B, was not recorded then it would not be possible for the court to determine the actual amount of loss suffered by B in this regard, so the court may impose a lump sum amount of damages in favor of B, this will fall under the concept un-liquidated damages as it was not able to calculate the actual amount of loss suffered by the aggrieved party (Cohen and McKendrick, 2005). In a famous English case ofHillas Co Ltd v Arcos Ltd, the house of lord observed that in breach of contract if the specification of the kind of breach and loss suffered by the aggrieved party is sufficient then the court of law may grant compensation upon the defendant in a specific way and the amount of compensation would be very much adequate in accordance with the breach as well as the terms and conditions of the contract. In the case of Carlton Communications and Granada Media plc v The Football League, the court of law with competent jurisdiction held that compensation is a right of the aggrieved party in case of a breach in course of a contract but if there is sufficient and justified ground of such breach of contract from the part of the defendant of suit then the amount of compensation may be waived and if it breach happened due to any natural disaster then neither of the parties to the contract shall be liable for any sought of penalty. In the case of Hadley v Baxendale, the court of law held that the aggrieved party to a breach of contract is entitled to get back the losses suffered due to the breach but any loss of anticipated income or gain is not permissible to be reimbursed from the defendant due to the breach of contract and the amount of damages shall be calculated depending upon the actual loss suffered by the aggrieved party (Grundmann, 2007). In the present legal scenario, the right of the aggrieved party has been changed to some extend especially as to rights in case of a breach of contract. Previously in the nineteenth century the parties to the contract has the right not only to enter into the contract and negotiate the terms of the contract but also to determine the level of compensation in case of the breach of contract (Fattal and Schutz, 2008). But in present legal scenario things have been changed, the court of law with competent jurisdiction has the authority to determine the level of compensation in case of a breach of contract (Beale and Tallon, 2002). Not only that whether there is any scope for the imposition of penalty is available or not or any other form of remedy is available to the aggrieved party or not, shall also determined by the court of law with competent jurisdiction. If the court of law things fit and proper then only the decree relating to the compensation shall be given and the form of damages shall also be determined by the court of law by applying its discretionary power (Fitzpatrick, 2004). In present society the scope of contract law has been noticeably increased in comparison to the nineteenth century, many cases are disposed depending upon the discretion of the court of law as every case is different every aspect is dissimilar and the region of contract law has been tremendously improved. In the case of Victoria Laundry (Windsor) Ltd v Newman Industries Ltd, the house of lord held that in case of a breach of contract the parties to the contract are at a liberty to solve the dispute by way of negotiating the terms of the contract or any other form of alternative dispute resolution but neither of the party has the right to impose the level of compensation upon the other party of the contract, if it does then it will not bear the binding force of law, for that purpose the aggrieved party have to approach the court of law with competent jurisdiction (Geest, 2011). From the above discussion it can be concluded that since the period of nineteenth century there has been a lot of changes arrived in scope of contract law. Many great judgments have been given by the court of law with competent jurisdiction and many great doctrines have been also evolved in relation to the concept of contract law and various contractual aspects. In spite of these alteration and changes the basic structure of the contract law remains the same as it was it the earlier period of time (Beale, 2010). In future it is very much possible that a lot more changes to the concept of agreements and contracts is going to be changed but the fundamental requirements and structure of the law of contract would be similar to that of it is in present (Stone and Cunnington, 2007). 3 (a): Under the mentioned circumstances, Ethel has the right to sue the Dominant Cause Partnership (DCP), as in the course of the contract formed between Ethel and the Dominant Cause Partnership, it was mentioned by Ethel that what kind of glasses she need for the purpose of protecting her paintings and she also talk about the nature of her painting and the kind of exhibition she would like to made. The representative of the company DCP assured Ethel that they will make the in such a manner that there shall be no scope for any damage to her painting by way of sunlight as they will specify superior quality of modern glasses which will offer her paintings a greater perspective as to protection from sunlight, but the company DCP has not complied their obligation in this regard as after constructing the house Ethel realize that the they specified was not up to the mark and it was not matching such quality as per the description made by the representative of DCP, they has prescribed some other kind of glass material dissimilar to her requirement and the term of the contract. For that purpose Ethel could have suffer from the loss of damage to her valuable paintings apart from that though the paintings has not been damaged yet before that it came to the knowledge of Ethel, but the DCP has violated the condition of the contract as well as Ethel have to bear the cost of change the fitted glass prescribed by the DCP. Hence, the liability lies upon the company that is Dominant Causes Partners. Because of their misconduct Ethel have to incur an additional expense for the purpose of changing the glass. So, Ethel has the right to reimburse all the expenditures in relation to change the wall glasses prescribed by the DCP. Though the cost of changing the glasses is higher than the actual cost of the paintings but in course of the contract there were nothing mentioned regarding the painting except the factors which may damage the painting and the protection of the painting that is the quality glasses for wall, which were the main subject matter of the breach of contract (Ellinghaus, 2007). For that purpose DCP have to bear the expenses in relation to change the wrong glasses which were fitted due to misconduct from the part of the DCP. If DCP have perfectly discharged his duty in the course of the contract in issue then Ethel would not have to change the glasses as well as the terms of the contract woul d not have been violated. In the case of Koufos v Czarnikow LtdorThe Heron II, it was observed by the Ld. Court that the plaintiff is entitled to get all the loss suffered due to the breach of contract or due to the negligence from the part of the defendant or due to any misconduct from the part of the defendant in the course of the contract, but loss of any anticipatory income is not permitted to be reimbursed by the plaintiff (Poole, 2006). 3 (b): Under the mentioned circumstances, Ethel is entitled to get compensation from the Dominant Causes Partners (DCP), as the company DCP has violated the right of Ethel in the course of the contract, not only that the company DCP has not performed their duty with due diligence in accordance with the terms of the contract for that reason Ethel not only have to incur the expenses for changing the glasses she has harassed, her legal right has been infringed and there was a possibility of causing damage to her painting. Because of that DCP is liable not only to pay the amount of loss in relation to change the glasses but also to pay damages in this regard. Generally in a situation like this the court awards liquidated damages as the cost of changing the glasses are estimated as well as if the painting would have been damaged the cost of which is also calculable, so, there is maximum possibility of awarding liquidated damages in this regard. In the case of Jackson v Royal Bank of Scotland, th e court of law with competent jurisdiction has observed that if the legal right of any party to a contract is violated in the course of the contract then the other party who is responsible for such violation is responsible to pay compensation to the aggrieved party of the contract in issue along with all the loss suffered by the aggrieved party (Kovac, 2011; Lexology.com, 2015). In the case of Williams v Roffey Bros, it was observed by the court of law, that in case of a breach of contact if the right of either of the party is infringed by the other party in relation to the contract then the aggrieved party is entitled to be compensated by the party to the contract who has infringed such right whether deliberately or not, but if the right has been infringed due to any natural consequences and the things were beyond control of the parties to the contract then neither of the party is liable for payment of any sought of damages (Williams v Roffey Bros, [1990]). In the mentioned case of Ethel, here the right of Ethel has been infringed by the Dominant Causing Partners, so it is not essential that whether it has been done intentionally or not, the main issue is that the right of Ethel has been infringed by the misconduct and improper discharge of duty from the part of the Dominant Causes Partners and there were no scope of natural disaster in such violation of ri ght (Stone, 2007; Baird, 2007). References Baird, D. (2007).Economics of contract law. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Beale, H. (2010).Cases, materials and text on contract law. Oxford [England]: Hart Pub. Beale, H. and Tallon, D. (2002).Contract law. Oxford [England]: Hart Pub. Bechor, G. (2007).The Sanhuri Code, and the emergence of modern Arab civil law (1932 to 1949). Leiden: Brill. Carter, J. (2012).Carter's breach of contract. Oxford: Hart Pub. Christ water technology subsidiary awarded UAE contract. (2007).Membrane Technology, 2007(10), p.6. Cohen, N. and McKendrick, E. 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